Hate Speech and Reclamation in Jamaica

Trigger Warning: This blog post has several themes that may not be suitable for everyone. So, I caution anyone who reads this because it includes mention/conversation of:

• Slurs

• Violence

• Mental Illness (such as anxiety, depression, and PTSD)

• Hate Speech

• Homophobia/Transphobia/Queerphobia

One of my core memories of dealing with the intricacies and power of the English language was in the third form (9th grade). There I sat, as I listened to my class read the play script of “Ti-Jean and His Brothers”, mumbling the words so my boredom wouldn’t be discovered. However, like a pain in my ear, the sentence “Enter Gros Jean, a bundle of f*ggots in one hand,” fell out of the mouths of my classmates; they now had my attention. My teacher, unphased, explained how they were related to sticks that were meant to start fires. Yet, every time the word appeared, it felt just as awful as the last. These days, a limited few use the word f*ggot to mean sticks, especially with the more derogatory meaning holding more weight and power. Regardless, it wouldn’t be until I discovered the history of the word queer, years later, that the thought came across my mind.

I believe words like these show how, throughout history, language has had the potential to harm others or reveal internal biases and ideologies. Groups affected by these harmful words may harness the power of language to change the narrative. This, in turn, made me wonder more about what makes these words harmful, especially if they had a different meaning prior, and what the steps are to harnessing that power. And, lastly, what is the correlation between hate speech and reclamation in the context of Jamaica’s LGBTQIA+ community? To complete this task, I hope to understand what these harmful words are by looking deeper into hate speech, specifically slurs, and the function they have in society. Additionally, this understanding will facilitate comprehending how slurs have been used to reclaim power with the overall objective of understanding how the Jamaica LGBTQIA+ community understands and views slurs and their reclamation.

Hate Speech and Slurs

Hate speech has been dissected by a variety of academics, specifically in the legal area, with the intention of further understanding: What does the “hate” in “hate speech” refer to, can hate speech be directed at dominant groups or is it always intended for oppressed or marginalised communities, what harm does hate speech cause; and what can or should be done to stop hate speech (Anderson & Barnes, 2022)? Given that hate speech is affected by how policymakers interpret and enforce their laws, it should come as no surprise that many countries have different ways of defending or critiquing hate speech. An illustration of this is the fact that while inciting racial or religious hatred is a crime in the United Kingdom, it is unconstitutional and violates the right to free speech in the United States (Howard, 2019). Regardless of hate speech’s complexities, Parekh (2012) states that hate speech has three fundamental features:

1. It is directed at a specific or readily distinguishable individual or, more frequently, a group of individuals based on an arbitrary and normatively irrelevant feature.

2. dehumanises the target group by implying or outright attributing to it traits that are generally thought to be very undesirable

3. The target group is perceived as a disruptive force and a justifiable target of hostility, endangering the harmony and welfare of society.

To better understand hate speech, many people turn to the easiest identifiable category of hate speech - slurs. (It is important to note that, while many academics consider slurs to be hate speech, hate speech can occur in contexts other than slurs.) Slurs, also known as derogatory terms, are words used to devalue target groups based on race (‘n***er’), nationality (‘k**ut’), religion (‘k*ke’), gender (‘bitch’), sexual orientation (‘f*g’), immigrant status (‘wetback’), and various other demographics; they are widely regarded as among the most taboo and offensive linguistic expressions (Anderson & Lepore, 2011; Croom, 2013).

What’s clear is that no matter what its history, no matter what it means or communicates, no matter who introduces it, regardless of its past associations, once relevant individuals declare a word a slur, it becomes one (Anderson & Lepore, 2011).

Using Parekh’s fundamental features in the context of the slur queer, hopefully, we can truly understand the power and control of these words, specifically in the LGBTQIA+ community.

The origins of the word queer are lost to the linguistic Gods; however, there are instances of the word being used in the 16th-century English language. Originally, the term was used to describe things or people that appeared “strange”, “odd”, “peculiar”, or “eccentric”. It wouldn’t be until the 19th century that a British nobleman, John Douglas, 9th Marquess of Queensberry, would change that. Queensberry would go on to publish a letter to his son, Lord Alfred Douglas, where he used the phrase “Snob Queer” to describe then Prime Minister, Lord Rosebery, (and other homosexuals) whom he suspected involvement in his eldest son, Francis, recent and suspicious death (Crowell, 2018; Gutierrez, 2019). Archibald Primrose, the Fifth Earl of Rosebery, may have been attracted to men, but to Queensberry, the Prime Minister’s lesser status within the Scottish peerage, combined with his liberal politics and his Jewish wife, all combine to make him a “Snob Queer” (or “pretentious interloper”) (Crowell, 2018).

Here, we can see how Queensberry uses the word queer to easily identify not only Lord Rosebery but other people who have sexual and political similarities to the minister. Additionally, queer implies that these traits are generally thought to be very undesirable. In turn, these traits that make up his queerness are viewed as disruptive forces that endanger the harmony of a cis-heteronormative society.

I think these examples help us better understand how hate speech, like slurs, is used to perpetuate harmful rhetoric as well as undermine the members of the target group. However, hate speech can cause irreversible damage to target community members. Ștefăniță & Buf (2021) found that in various communities, hate speech, especially in an online space, can have a variety of short-term and long-term effects on an individual’s mental and physical health. Issues include but are not limited to, loneliness, fear, anxiety, post-traumatic disorders, internalised homophobia, and depression. Additionally, hate speech and hate crimes often go hand in hand with each other. The Inter-American Commission has reported that they received information indicating that violence against lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and intersex (LGBTI) people is fueled by the spread of “hate speech” (Organization of American States Secretariat for Political Affairs, 2016). As well, though the motive for these incidents is not known, the United States Department of Justice discovered in 2020 that over 10,500 single-bias incidents involved 12,411 victims, 15.9% of whom were targeted because of the offenders' sexual orientation bias (U.S. Department of Justice, 2023).

Overall, hate speech is a complex issue that affects many communities and can be directed at a wide range of oppressed groups. Individuals who engage in hate speech may resort to using slurs to denigrate target groups. Hate speech, on the other hand, can cause irreversible harm to members of the target community, including mental and physical health issues such as loneliness, fear, anxiety, post-traumatic disorders, internalised homophobia, and depression. Hate speech and hate crimes frequently coexist, with hate speech fueling violence against LGBTQIA+ people. Though slurs such as queer did not gain their derogatory meaning in the eyes of the general public until 1914, it would be absurd to ignore the fact that the word had potentially negative and harmful effects on the individuals who were subjected to it. Nonetheless, even in the case of my blog, queer does not have the same impact on people who lived in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. But how does that influence change?

The Reclamation

Reclamation is everywhere. From the works of Rihanna, Megan Thee Stallion, Doechii, and even Billie Ellish, we can see the use of the former slur, bitch. Originally, the word was used against women whom society deemed unpleasant or aggressive, but now it stands with us in books, music, art and is even incorporated in many playful bumper stickers. The phenomenon of reclamation speaks to how targeted groups of society regain the power of slurs. Reclamation projects are a type of social protest that is explicitly discursive in nature; in contrast to other forms of protest, reclamation projects concentrate on altering the linguistic function of a term or phrase rather than using language as a tool in speeches, songs, or literature to achieve their goals (Herbert, 2015). In order for slurs to be reclaimed, historically, there are stages for transforming slurs in a non-derogatory manner; these are:

• Level 1 represents individual acts of reclamation, in which target group members self-label or label other in-group members as a way of dealing with a potentially threatening interpersonal situation.

• Level 2 represents group acts of reclamation, in which the target group self-labels as a group in an attempt to revalue a stigmatising label.

• Level 3 denotes a successful reclamation in which members of the out-group accept the positive revaluation of the slur term.

(Galinsky et al., 2003; Popa-Wyatt, 2020)

To gain insight into these stages, we can examine the progression of the word queer. As previously stated, the term "queer" has a derogatory history dating back to the 18th century, though it gained popularity closer to 1914. During the years before and after, however, many individuals of the LGBTQIA+ community often called themselves queer as a self label even with its derogatory meaning. In fact, even as an adjective, in dictionaries "queer" was considered ‘derogatory from the outside, not from within’ (Clarke, 2021). This exemplifies how level 1 occurs, with members associating the term with themselves and their community. According to Jones (2023), this shift in usage occurred in the context of civil rights movements where LGBTQIA+ people created new ways of being in society. The civil rights movement would then prompt an increase in the use of the word "queer." There were publications like OUTWEEK that used queer more frequently to refer to the gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgendered community, as well as chants like “We’re here because we’re queer,” or the infamous “We're here, we're queer, get used to it” that was used at protests. Additionally, queer’s inclusivity attributed to a variety of LGBTQIA+ individuals flocking towards it, for it did not denote a particular genre of sexual identity, queer," but rather represented any number of positions arrayed in opposition to oppressive social and cultural norms and policies related to sexuality and gender (Stryker, 2004). This perfectly demonstrates how group self-labelling, as seen in Level 2, can start the process of claiming the power of the word queer.

Why Queer

Well, yes, "gay " is great. It has its place. But when a lot of lesbians and gay men wake up in the morning we feel angry and disgusted, not gay. So we've chosen to call ourselves queer. Using "queer" is a way of reminding us how we are perceived by the rest of the world. It's a way of telling ourselves we don't have to be witty and charming people who keep our lives discreet and marginalized in the straight world. We use queer as gay men loving lesbians and lesbians loving being queer. Queer, unlike GAY, doesn't mean MALE. And when spoken to other gays and lesbians it's a way of suggesting we close ranks, and forget (temporarily) our individual differences because we face a more insidious common enemy. Yeah, QUEER can be a rough word but it is also a sly and ironic weapon we can steal from the homophobe's hands and use against him.

(Anon, 1990)

However, before successful reclamation can occur, there are some conditions that may affect it. One such condition is the outcome. Jeshion (2020) believes that there are two different varieties of reclamation that may change the outcome/ process leading to a non-derogatory outcome; these are pride reclamation and insular reclamation.

• Pride Reclamation: the reclamation of a derogatory representation through processes in which the representation is accompanied by expressions of pride for belonging to the group or the targeted object, and the representation is publicly presented as an appropriate way to refer to the group.

• Insular Reclamation: the reclamation of a derogatory representation through processes in which the representation is used to express and elicit camaraderie among target members in the face of and to insulate from oppression, and the representation is not presented publicly as an appropriate way for out-group members to refer to target group members.

Though, both pride and insular reclamations have a common structure, their intended visibility is where they differ. This difference can hypothetically make a huge difference in how the slur is utilised within society. Pride reclamation, which can be best seen with the necessary word queer, which aims to reshape the collective social identity of the group to one that merits and insists upon equal respect. This does not mean that it can’t be used in a derogatory manner; rather, it is used to change the way in which society interacts with the community with the purpose of normalising the individuals of the target demographic. Another condition that is necessary for successful reclamation to occur is whether target group members self-labelled with the term. Many of these slurs have a painful backstory for many people, and they frequently associate the term with many of the negative thoughts and beliefs that it was originally linked to. However, if members cannot come to a consensus that this word is being reclaimed, then out-groups may not accept the word as reclaimed and may use it for its derogatory meaning or avoid saying it overall. Yet, the queer community has successfully reclaimed the word queer, with many individuals self-labelling or even the negative association barely even discussed; which shows a completion of level 3.

In conclusion, instead of using language as a tool, reclamation projects are philosophical social protests that aim to change the linguistic function of a term or phrase. Individual acts of reclamation, group acts of reclamation, and successful reclamation, in which members of the out-group accept the positive revaluation of the slur term, are the three stages for transforming slurs in a non-derogatory manner. Successful reclamation can be affected by pride reclamation and insular reclamation, which differ in their intended visibility as well as the acceptance of the slur within communities. Pride reclamation entails using pride to reshape a derogatory representation, whereas insular reclamation uses it to express camaraderie. Whereas, when it comes to acceptance, out-groups may reject the reclamation if members cannot agree on it, resulting in negative consequences. Now that we have an understanding of hate speech, slurs, and reclamation, how does Jamaica come in?

In Jamaica’s Context

Jamaica is known for many cultural phenomena, from food, music to even sports. A country like Jamaica has earned its spot as one of the best countries to visit. However, one part of culture not spoken about enough is Jamaicans’ thoughts regarding queer/LGBTQIA+ individuals. Many Jamaicans exhibit significant levels of homophobia, evident through both their verbal expressions and public actions, highlighting their distasteful position on the LGBTQIA+ community. There are several examples of Jamaica’s unhealthy hatred for the community, such as a 2006 Times article titled “The Most Homophobic Place on Earth?” or the 2021 spectacle of multiple Jamaicans standing outside The United States Embassy protesting the pride flag to be removed, and the most recent comments made by Delroy Chuck stating that the government isn’t and will not be looking at legalising same-sex marriage any time soon. However, Jamaica’s biggest demonstration of anti-gay rhetoric is within music.

Murder music, as many scholars like to call it, are songs that promote the act of well– murder. Murder music is vast and transcends genres, with many being about killing oppositions or individuals who seek to bring pain to those you care most about. Yet, Jamaican music has found a way to embed homophobic ideas into its music, with famous songs such as Boom Bye Bye by Buju Banton or Apologize by Sizzla Kalonji. Many of these songs have been used as chants to incite/promote violence against the LGBTQIA+ community, as seen when J-FLAG co-founder Brian Williamson was stabbed to death in Jamaica, while a Human Rights Watch employee observed a gleeful crowd outside his house chanting “Let's get them one at a time” and singing “Boom Bye Bye” (Nelson, 2011).

In a country that still has buggery laws in place, its citizens are outwardly not permitted even the basic right of being married, and even with a history of homophobic music, it was a shock to see many Jamaican LGBTQIA+ individuals shout at a party louder than anyone else's T.O.K. “Chi Chi Man” or even make social media videos with it playing in the background.

From dem a par inna chi chi man car

If you're hanging out in homosexual man's car

Blaze di fire mek we bun dem!!!! (Bun dem!!!!)

Ignite the fire, let us burn them (Burn them!)

From dem a drink inna chi chi man bar

If you're drinking in homosexual man's bar

Blaze di fire mek we dun dem!!!! (Dun dem!!!!)

Ignite the fire, let us burn them (Burn them!)

(T.O.K, 2001)

Many LGBTQIA+ individuals profess their love for many of these songs, as they remember spending a lot of their childhood listening to them. However, along with songs, many slurs have also made their way into the mainstream. Jamaicans have a plethora of names, often for homosexual men, that are used to attack the community. Yet, there is a small group of individuals that have begun self identifying with many of them using it as social media handles, wearing articles of clothing with the slur, or placing it in their bio. The most shocking example of this is when international artist Lil Nas X used the word "batty boy" magazine in his birthday photos as a replacement for the usual playboy magazine. Given all these occurrences, one can't help but wonder if we are witnessing the reclamation of these words and songs not only on an individual scale but within the entire community.

From my perspective, we are showing signs of level one of the reclamation process, in which many Jamaicans find solace within these songs and words and begin self-labelling themselves and other members of the LGBTQIA+ community. I personally see members of the Jamaican LGBTQIA+ community accepting the idea of being a “Sodomite Gyal” or “Batty Boy”. Many Jamaican LGBTQIA+ individuals, especially those in safer spaces, are making themselves visible and reclaiming the power of these words. Additionally, I see what can occur when LGBTQIA+ folks come together and have events that celebrate their queerness or even educate themselves on how to be advocates for themselves and others rather than being ashamed of themselves. Also, the broader reclamation of the words from queer individuals on a bigger stage, such as Lil Nas X, shows many other LGBTQIA+ individuals that it's okay to self-identify and that we do indeed have the power to take control. When I see acquaintances use these once harmful words, I see them saying, “It's okay to be who you are without boundaries and to be visible, regardless of what the outside public may think.”

Although reclaiming is still a complex issue with many nuances, we are aware that we must exercise caution in how we reclaim these words and the goals we have in mind. Furthermore, while many of the people we see reclaiming may appear to have a safer experience of self-identification, it is not entirely impossible for more LGBTQIA+ people in Jamaica to come together and reclaim these words. It is long overdue that we take back the power once stolen from us and find joy in enjoying music and words again while still loving our queer identities. Does this mean that by next year, all the individuals in Jamaica will begin using these words? Probably not. Especially given the climate of Jamaica in regards to the community and how a lot of the focus is on ensuring that the disenfranchised members are safe and taken care of and when we gather, individuals can come comfortably without harm. However, given that many people are standing firm within their queerness compared to the early years, thanks to many activists who have made these spaces for us, other queer individuals who have hosted events for people to feel safe, and just regular LGBTQIA+ individuals finding family within each other, the LGBTQIA+ community is stronger than ever in my eyes.

Reclamation is not easy, and it's not a fix for many of our problems, but I believe that reclamation is in our country's future. As more people recognise the importance of empathy and education in combating hate speech, the future looks bright. I can envision a future where younger LGBTQIA+ people can live authentically without fear of prejudice, and where language is used to empower rather than oppress. You are odd, strange, and peculiar; you are indeed queer, but there is no shame in that because you are you and no one is you.

References

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